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GANESH
| Толкование имени = Владыка ганов | Тип = | Религия = индуизм | Пол = мужской | Период жизни = | Изображение = Ganesha Basohli miniature circa 1730 Dubost p73.jpg | Размер изображения = | Подпись = Ганеша, музей Берлина | Описание = бог мудрости и благополучия | Имя на других языках = | Греческое написание = | Латинское написание = | В иных культурах = | Местность = | Занятие = повелитель ганов (войско-свита Шивы), в его свите также вратьи — колдуны, прорицатели и ведуны | Происхождение = см.вероятное происхождение | Упоминания = Ригведа, Атхарваведа, Ганапати-упанишада, Ганеша-пурана, Мудгала-пурана, Ганеша-сахасранама | Династия = | Отец = Шива | Мать = Парвати | Брат = Сканда | Сестра = Ашокасундари | Супруг = | Супруга = Сиддха или Буддхи | Дети = | Место погребения = | Связанные понятия = интеллект, разум, успех, процветание | Связанные события = | Связанные персонажи = | Атрибуты = В Бенгалии соединён узами с банановым деревом | Характерные черты = Полный человек с головой слона и одним бивнем, количество рук — от 2 до 32 | Вахана = крыса | Мантра = Ганеша-сахасранама }} Гане́ша, или Ганапати ( ; ; ) — в индуизме бог мудрости и благополучия. Один из наиболее известных и почитаемых богов индуистского пантеона. Часто перед его именем добавляется уважительная приставка Шри-''. Одним из популярных способов поклонения Ганеше является произнесение нараспев Ганеша-сахасранама ( , «тысяча имён Ганеши»), каждое из которых символизирует отдельный аспект бога, и Ганапати-сукты. Семья Сын Шивы и Парвати. При этом пуранические мифы противоречат друг другу, описывая рождение Ганеши. В одних случаях говорится, что Ганеша создан Шивой, в других — он создан Парвати, в третьих — совместно Шивой и Парвати. Известны варианты, в которых Ганеша явился миру непостижимым образом и был обнаружен Шивой и Парвати, усыновившими его. Брат Ганеши — Сканда (Картикея'', Муруган). В северной части Индии принято считать, что старший из братьев — Сканда. В южной части первенство рождения приписывают Ганеше. Сканда почитался важным воинственным божеством в период с V века до н. э. по VI век н. э. Массовое поклонение Ганеше началось после заката культа Сканды. Расходятся мнения мифов и в отношении семейного положения Ганеши. Часть мифов относит Ганешу к брахмачарьям, которые не могли жениться. Это мнение широко распространено на юге Индии и, частично, — в северной её части. По другой версии Ганеша ассоциируется с такими идеями как Буддхи (интеллект, разум), Сиддхи (успех) и Риддхи (процветание). Иногда эти идеи (концепции) персонифицировались в одноименных божеств, которые признавались жёнами Ганеши. Ещё один вариант утверждает, что женой Ганеши была богиня культуры и искусств Сарасвати или богиня удачи и процветания Лакшми. Версия, распространенная в Бенгалии, соединяет Ганешу узами с банановым деревом Кала Бо. Изображения thumb|left|Изображение Ганеши верхом на крысе. Музей искусства Азии в [[Берлине]] Изображается в виде полного человека с головой слона и одним бивнем, восседающего на своей вахане — крысе (по другой версии, землеройкеGanesh’s Shrew, Durbar Square или даже собакеStatue of the dog mooshika at the Rubin Museum). Количество рук разнится от двух до тридцати двух в зависимости от облика. Вероятное происхождение Самые ранние упоминания о Ганапати встречаются в двух гимнах Ригведы — 2.23.1 и 10.112.9. Первая сукта состоит из 19 стихов (риков), написанных размером джагати (кроме 15 и 19, которые написаны триштубхом). Сукта воспевает божеств Брахманаспати и Брихаспати, которых обычно расценивают как имена одного божества, но такие авторитетные комментаторы как Яска, Шаунака и Саяна четко проводят различия. В общем, могут быть небольшие сомнения насчет того, что известный ныне Ганапати вырос из Брихаспати-Брахманаспати этой сукты (Гартсаманда-сукта), но идея несомненно ведийская: gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇāpatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam । jyeṣṭharājaṃ brahmaṇāṃ brahmaṇaspata ā naḥ śṛṇvannūtibhiḥ sida sādanam । Мы призываем тебя, о Ганапати ганов (предводитель небесных войск)! О, Брахманаспати брахманов (предводитель брахманов), Поэт среди поэтов (в высшем смысле — как творец среди творцов)! В богатствах превышающих все известное, самый сверкающий среди существ! Прислушайся к нашим молитвам, приди с твоим благословением и воссядь! Комментаторы приводят много деталей, конкретизирующих предводителя небесных воинств, к известным аспектам — в частности Индре и Агни, которые в Ведах часто почитаемы вместе, а также Рудре (Тайттирия-самхита и Ваджасанея-самхита описывают Ганапати как Рудру). Любопытно, что там же, а также в Шатапатха-брахмане, Агни описывается как податель всего, имеющий большой живот. Интересно подан Ганапати в более поздней Атхарваведе. Некоторые божества, которые не расценивались как важные и влиятельные в Ригведе, стали играть гораздо более значимую роль в Атхарваведе. Мать-Земля — Притхви становится одним из центральных аспектов, а Брахманаспати (Брихаспати) появляется здесь как связанный с ней Вачаспати — покровитель священной речи. Он первый рожденный среди богов, с ним связано число 21 (5 махабхутов, 5 танматр, 10 индрий и кармендрий и прана как жизненная сила). Эта группа из 21 называется гана или врата, и Вачаспати именуется Ганапати или Вратапати. Также он и Махад-якша (великий мистический свет), существующий в центре мира, а все боги как ветви этого центрального древа мира. Также Вачаспати предстает как предводитель якшасов. И якшасы эти совсем не те демоны, которыми их пытается представить позднейшая интерпретация мифологии. Якша — это замечательный, исключительный, могущественный и достойный поклонения дух. В его свите также вратьи — колдуны, прорицатели и ведуны, потребляющие психотропные препараты и ведущие образ жизни, расходящийся с принятым по законам. Вся эта замечательная братия впоследствии перекочевала в свиту Ганапати как сына бога Шивы. И собственно только с Ганапати-упанишады появляются описания слоноликого облика Ганапати. Праздник Ганеши Ежегодно в Индии проходит праздник, посвящённый Ганеше, — Ганеша-чатуртхи, или, иначе, «Фестиваль Ганеши». Празднование начинается в четвёртый день прибывающей луны месяца Бхадрапада (он попадает в промежуток между 19 августа и 20 сентября) и длится десять дней. Красочные шествия со статуями (идолами) божества собирают многотысячные толпы паломников. После подношений Ганеше эти статуи топят в водоёмах, таким образом символизируется природный цикл рождения и смерти.Праздник Ганеша Чатуртхи в ИндииКрасочный фестиваль Ганеши Чатуртхи в Индии Легенды * Согласно одной из легенд, головы Ганешу лишил его отец бог Шива. Ганеша не пускал отца, воспылавшего страстью к супруге, в покои, где она находилась. Тогда Шива в гневе лишил его головы, забросив её так далеко, что никто из посланных не смог её отыскать. Богиня была в гневе и отказалась допускать к себе Шиву до тех пор, пока он не исправит положение. Чтобы успокоить супругу, Шива пришил Ганеше голову находившегося поблизости слонёнка. Согласно другой версии, на день рождения Ганеши забыли пригласить бога Шани (олицетворение планеты Сатурн), и тот, явившись без приглашения, в гневе испепелил голову младенца взглядом. Тогда Брахма посоветовал Шиве пришить младенцу голову первого же существа, которое ему встретится. Этим существом оказался слон Индры — Айравата. Согласно устным индийским мифам, Сатурн (Шани), являясь одним из родственников, был приглашен на чествование новорожденного сына Шивы: мать Ганеши, Парвати, непременно хотела показать могущественному родственнику прекрасного младенца. Обладая смертоносным взглядом, который он был не в состоянии контролировать, Шани долго отказывался от приглашения, но его всё же уговорили. Первый же взгляд Шани на сына Шивы испепелил ему голову. По другой версии, голова просто отвалилась. * По поводу потери одного бивня также существуют несколько вариантов легенд. По одной из легенд Ганеша, сражаясь с великаном Гаджамукхой, сам отломил свой бивень и бросил его в противника. Бивень обладал магической силой, и Гаджамукха превратился в крысу, став затем ездовым животным Ганеши. Другая легенда гласит, что однажды Шиву навестил мудрец Парашурама (аватара Вишну), но Шива в это время спал, и Ганеша отказался его впустить. Тогда Парашурама бросил в Ганешу свой топор и отсек ему правый бивень. Есть также легенда, что, записывая Махабхарату под диктовку Вьясы, Ганеша сломал перо и, не желая упустить ни слова, отломил бивень и стал писать им. * Ганеша также является повелителем ганов (войско-свита Шивы). Существует легенда о том, что Ганеша и Сканда (оба — сыновья Шивы) боролись за этот пост, и в итоге Шива решил, что тот будет повелителем ганов, кто быстрее обежит вокруг Галактики. Сканда сразу сорвался с места и начал свой долгий путь, а Ганеша не торопясь обошел своих родителей по кругу, ведь именно Шива и Парвати были олицетворением Галактики. И после этого Ганеша получил прозвище «Ганапати» (владыка ганов). См. также * Ганапати-упанишада * Ганеша-пурана * Ганеша-сахасранама * Мудгала-пурана * Ганеша-чатуртхи Примечания Литература ; на русском языке * * * ; на других языках * * Doniger W. Ganesha // Encyclopædia Britannica, 03.06.2015 * * * |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=285–301 |quote= |doi=10.2307/3249845 |publisher=Artibus Asiae Publishers |jstor=3249845}} * * Категория:Боги мудрости и знаний Категория:Боги судьбы и случая Категория:Боги по алфавиту }} | image = Ganesha Basohli miniature circa 1730 Dubost p73.jpg | caption = Basohli miniature, c. 1730. National Museum, New Delhi."Ganesha getting ready to throw his lotus. Basohli miniature, circa 1730. National Museum, New Delhi. In the (VII, 70), in order to kill the demon of egotism ( ) who had attacked him, throws his lotus at him. Unable to bear the fragrance of the divine flower, the demon surrenders to ." For quotation of description of the work, see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 73. | alt = Attired in an orange dhoti, an elephant-headed man sits on a large lotus. His body is red in colour and he wears various golden necklaces and bracelets and a snake around his neck. On the three points of her crown, budding lotuses have been fixed. He holds in his two right hands the rosary (lower hand) and a cup filled with three modakas (round yellow sweets), a fourth modaka held by the curving trunk is just about to be tasted. In his two left hands, he holds a lotus above and an axe below, with its handle leaning against his shoulder on the right side. | Devanagari = | Sanskrit_transliteration = | affiliation = Deva , Brahman (Ganapatya) , Panchayatana puja | mantra = | abode = Mount Kailash (with parents Shiva and Parvati) | weapon = (axe), (noose), (elephant goad) | consort = | mount = Mouse | symbols = Om, Modak | festivals = Ganesh Chaturthi | texts = Ganesha Purana, Mudgala Purana, Ganapati Atharvashirsa }} Ganesha ( , ; ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, Pillaiyar and Binayak, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon.Rao, p. 1. His image is found throughout India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Bali (Indonesia), Bangladesh and Nepal. * Brown, p. 1. " is often said to be the most worshipped god in India. " * Getty, p. 1. " , Lord of the , although among the latest deities to be admitted to the Brahmanic pantheon, was, and still is, the most universally adored of all the Hindu gods and his image is found in practically every part of India. " Hindu denominations worship him regardless of affiliations. * Rao, p. 1. * Martin-Dubost, pp. 2–4. * Brown, p. 1. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists. * Chapter XVII, "The Travels Abroad", in: Nagar (1992), pp. 175–187. For a review of Ganesha's geographic spread and popularity outside of India. * Getty, pp. 37–88, For discussion of the spread of Ganesha worship to Nepal, Chinese Turkestan, Tibet, Burma, Siam, Indo-China, Java, Bali, Borneo, China, and Japan * Martin-Dubost, pp. 311–320. * Thapan, p. 13. * Pal, p. x. Although he is known by many attributes, Ganesha's elephant head makes him easy to identify.Martin-Dubost, p. 2. Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles,For Ganesha's role as an eliminator of obstacles, see commentary on , verse 12 in the patron of arts and sciences and the deva of intellect and wisdom. As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rites and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions.These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography. Ganesha likely emerged as a deity as early as the 2nd century AD, but most certainly by the 4th and 5th centuries AD, during the Gupta period, although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors.Narain, A. K. " : The Idea and the Icon" in Hindu mythology identifies him as the restored son of Parvati and Shiva of the Shaivism tradition, but he is a pan-Hindu god found in its various traditions. In the Ganapatya tradition of Hinduism, Ganesha is the supreme deity.For history of the development of the and their relationship to the wide geographic dispersion of Ganesha worship, see: Chapter 6, "The " in: Thapan (1997), pp. 176–213. The principal texts on Ganesha include the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Brahma Purana and Brahmanda Purana are other two Puranic genre encyclopedic texts that deal with Ganesha. Etymology and other names Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati (Ganpati) and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri ( ; IAST: ; also spelled Sri or Shree) is often added before his name. The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana ( ), meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha ( ), meaning lord or master. * Narain, A. K. " : A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon". Brown, pp. 21–22. * Apte, p. 395. The word gaṇa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaṇas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva, Ganesha's father.For the derivation of the name and relationship with the , see: Martin-Dubost. p. 2. The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the " to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements.The word gaṇa is interpreted in this metaphysical sense by Bhāskararāya in his commentary on the . See in particular commentary on verse 6 including names and in: . Ganapati ( ; ), a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of , meaning "group", and , meaning "ruler" or "lord". Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda, it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha. Rigveda Mandala 2 , Hymn 2.23.1, Wikisource, Quote: गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनामुपमश्रवस्तमम् । ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणस्पत आ नः शृण्वन्नूतिभिः सीद सादनम् ॥१॥; For translation, see Grimes (1995), pp. 17-19 The Amarakosha, * for source text of 1.38 as . * for text of versified as 1.1.38. an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha: Vinayaka, (equivalent to Vighnesha), (one who has two mothers),Y. Krishan, : Unravelling an Enigma, 1999, p. 6): "Pārvati who created an image of out of her bodily impurities but which became endowed with life after immersion in the sacred waters of the Gangā. Therefore he is said to have two mothers—Pārvati and Gangā and hence called dvaimātura and also Gāngeya." (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha), Ekadanta (one who has one tusk), Heramba, Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and Gajanana ( ); having the face of an elephant.Krishan p.6 Vinayaka ( ; ) is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the s and in Buddhist Tantras.Thapan, p. 20. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak ( , ).For the history of the sites and a description of pilgrimage practices related to them, see: Mate, pp. 1–25. The names Vighnesha ( ; ) and Vighneshvara ( ; ) (Lord of Obstacles)These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For the name Vighnesha, see: refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles ( ).For Krishan's views on Ganesha's dual nature see his quote: " has a dual nature; as Vināyaka, as a , he is , and as he is , a ." Krishan, p. viii. A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai ( ) or Pillaiyar ( ).Martin-Dubost, p. 367. A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child". He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk", also "elephant tooth or tusk".Narain, A. K. " : The Idea and the Icon". Brown, p. 25. Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant".Thapan, p. 62. In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne ( , ), derived from Pali ( ). The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikanet. The earliest images and mention of Ganesha names as a major deity in present-day Indonesia,Robert L. Brown (1987), A Note on the Recently Discovered Gaṇeśa Image from Palembang, Sumatra , Indonesia, No. 43, Issue April, pages 95-100 Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam date from the 7th- and 8th-centuries, and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th century or earlier. In Sri Lankan Singhala Buddhist areas, he is known as Gana deviyo, and revered along with Buddha, Vishnu, Skanda and others. Iconography -style, Karnataka]] Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art.Pal, p. ix. Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time. * Martin-Dubost, for a comprehensive review of iconography abundantly illustrated with pictures. * Chapter X, "Development of the Iconography of ", in: , for a survey of iconography with emphasis on developmental themes, well-illustrated with plates. * Pal, for a richly illustrated collection of studies on specific aspects of Ganesha with a focus on art and iconography. He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, or sitting down on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations. Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century.Brown, p. 175. The 13th-century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900–1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973–1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,Martin-Dubost, p. 213. In the upper right corner, the statue is dated as (973–1200). and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.Pal, p. vi. The picture on this page depicts a stone statue in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art that is dated as c. 12th century. Pal shows an example of this form dated c. 13th century on p. viii. Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.Brown, p. 176. A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century.See photograph 2, "Large Ganesh", in: Pal, p. 16. Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm. In rare instances, he may be depicted with a human head. For the human-headed form of Ganesha in: * Cambodia, see Brown, p. 10 * Nandrudayan Vinayaka Temple, see * Uthrapathiswaraswamy Temple see Catlin, Amy; "Vātāpi Gaṇapatim": Sculptural, Poetic, and Musical Texts in the a Hymn to Gaṇeśa" in Brown pp. 146, 150 The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (abhaya mudra). * Martin-Dubost, pp. 197–198. * photograph 9, "Ganesh images being taken for immersion", in: Pal, pp. 22–23. For an example of a large image of this type being carried in a festival procession. * Pal, p. 25, For two similar statues about to be immersed. The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme. * Pal, pp. 41–64. For many examples of Ganesha dancing. * Brown, p. 183. For popularity of the dancing form. Common attributes school (circa 1810)Four-armed . Miniature of Nurpur school, circa 1810. Museum of Chandigarh. For this image see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 64, which describes it as follows: "On a terrace leaning against a thick white bolster, is seated on a bed of pink lotus petals arranged on a low seat to the back of which is fixed a parasol. The elephant-faced god, with his body entirely red, is dressed in a yellow dhoti and a yellow scarf fringed with blue. Two white mice decorated with a pretty golden necklace salute by joining their tiny feet together. counts on his rosary in his lower right hand; his two upper hands brandish an axe and an elephant goad; his fourth hand holds the broken left tusk."]] Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.Nagar, p. 77. Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.Brown, p. 3. One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.Nagar, p. 78. While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories.Brown, p. 76. The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant.Brown, p. 77. Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from varying from source to source.Brown, pp. 77–78.Brown, pp. 76–77. Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.For creation of Ganesha from Shiva's laughter and subsequent curse by Shiva, see Varaha Purana 23.17 as cited in Brown: p. 77. Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken. Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.Heras, p. 29. The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta.Granoff, Phyllis. " as Metaphor". Brown, p. 90. Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries)."Ganesha in Indian Plastic Art" and Passim. Nagar, p. 101. This feature is so important that according to the Mudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly).Granoff, Phyllis. " as Metaphor". Brown, p. 91. Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST: ).For translation of udara as "belly" see: Apte, p. 268. The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs; IAST: ) of the past, present, and future are present in him. * Br. P. 2.3.42.34 * Thapan, p. 200, For a description of how a variant of this story is used in the Mudgala Purana 2.56.38–9 The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.For an iconographic chart showing number of arms and attributes classified by source and named form, see: Nagar, pp. 191–195. Appendix I. Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.For history and prevalence of forms with various arms and the four-armed form as one of the standard types see: . His earliest images had two arms. * , For two-armed forms as an earlier development than four-armed forms. * Brown, p. 103. Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri say in "Images of In Jainism" that the presence of only two arms on a Ganesha image points to an early date. Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries.Martin-Dubost, p. 120. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms. * Martin-Dubost, p. 202, For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography. * , For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography. According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck. * Martin-Dubost, p. 202. For the Ganesha Purana references for around the neck and use of a serpent-throne. * . For the story of wrapping around the neck and around the belly and for the name in his sahasranama as ("Who has a serpent around his neck"), which refers to this standard iconographic element. Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST: ) * Martin-Dubost, p. 202. For the text of a stone inscription dated 1470 identifying Ganesha's sacred thread as the serpent . * Nagar, p. 92. For the snake as a common type of for Ganesha. wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be a third eye or the sectarian mark (IAST: ), which consists of three horizontal lines. * Nagar, p. 81. tilaka with three horizontal lines. * the in: Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.1. For Ganesa visualized as (having three eyes). The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead. * Nagar, p. 81. For citation to Ganesha Purana I.14.21–25 and For citation to Padma Purana as prescribing the crescent for decoration of the forehead of Ganesha * Bailey (1995), pp. 198–199. For translation of Ganesha Purana I.14, which includes a meditation form with moon on forehead. A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra (IAST: ; "Moon on the Forehead") includes that iconographic element. * Nagar, p. 81. For Bhālacandra as a distinct form worshipped. * Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.15. For the name Bhālacandra appearing in the Ganesha Sahasranama Ganesha is often described as red in color.Nagar, Preface. Specific colors are associated with certain forms."The Colors of Ganesha". Martin-Dubost, pp. 221–230. Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage).Martin-Dubost, pp. 224–228 Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation in that form.Martin-Dubost, p. 228. Vahanas , 11th century CE, Asian Art Museum of Berlin (Dahlem).]] The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle).Krishan, pp. 48, 89, 92. Of [[Mudgala Purana#The eight incarnations of Ganesha|the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana]], Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja.Krishan, p. 49. Mohotkata uses a lion, uses a peacock, Dhumraketu uses a horse, and Gajanana uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock. * Krishan, pp. 48–49. * Bailey (1995), p. 348. For the Ganesha Purana story of with the peacock mount (GP I.84.2–3) * Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri, "Images of In Jainism", in: Brown, pp.101–102. Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse, shrew or rat. * Nagar. Preface. * Martin-Dubost, pp. 231–244. Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet.See note on figure 43 in: Martin-Dubost, p. 144. The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation.Citations to Matsya Purana 260.54, Brahmananda Purana Lalitamahatmya XXVII, and Ganesha Purana 2.134–136 are provided by: Martin-Dubost, p. 231. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.Martin-Dubost, p. 232. The names (mouse-mount) and (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.For see v. 6. For Ākhuketana see v. 67. In: . ( , 1991). Source text with a commentary by in Sanskrit. The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret 's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes as well as desire".For a review of different interpretations, and quotation, see: Grimes (1995), p. 86. Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.A Student's Guide to AS Religious Studies for the OCR Specification, by Michael Wilcockson, pg.117 Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word (mouse) is derived from the root (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.Krishan pp. 49–50. Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places. * Martin-Dubost, p. 231. * Rocher, Ludo. " 's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature", in: Brown (1991), p. 73. For mention of the interpretation that "the rat is 'the animal that finds its way to every place,'" Features -Ganesha with consort, 18th century Nepal]] Removal of obstacles Ganesha is Vighneshvara (Vighnaraja, Marathi - Vighnaharta), the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order."Lord of Removal of Obstacles", a common name, appears in the title of Courtright's : Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For equivalent Sanskrit names Vighneśvara and Vighnarāja, see: Courtright, p. 136. He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Paul Courtright says that Ganesha's dharma and his raison d'etre is to create and remove obstacles.Courtright, p. 136. Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time. Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the , to this shift in emphasis from (obstacle-creator) to (obstacle-averter).For Dhavilkar's views on Ganesha's shifting role, see Dhavalikar, M. K. " : Myth and reality" in However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.Brown, p. 6. Buddhi (Knowledge) Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.Nagar, p. 5. In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect. The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya.Ganesha Purana I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition. It appears in verse 10 of the version as given in the Bhaskararaya commentary. This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important.Sharma edition, GP-1993 I.46, verses 204–206. The Bailey edition uses a variant text, and where Sharma reads Buddhipriya, Bailey translates Granter-of-lakhs. The word priya can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband",Practical Sanskrit Dictionary By Arthur Anthony McDonell; p.187 (priya); Published 2004; Motilal Banarsidass Publ; so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".Krishan 1999; pp. 60–70 discusses Ganesha as "Buddhi's Husband". Om Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Om, also spelled Aum. The term (Om is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound.Grimes, p. 77. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows: ]. You are the sun ] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka earth, Antariksha-loka space, and Swargaloka heaven. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).}} Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Om in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.For examples of both, see: Grimes, pp. 79–80. First chakra According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra, called Muladhara ( ). Mula means "original, main"; adhara means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests.Tantra Unveiled: Seducing the Forces of Matter & Spirit By Rajmani Tigunait; Contributor Deborah Willoughby; Published 1999; Himalayan Institute Press; p. 83; This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: "You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine mūlādhāra cakra}}."Translation. Courtright, p. 253. Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara. Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the wheel of life". Family and consorts and Parvati giving a bath to Ganesha. Kangra miniature, 18th century. Allahabad Museum, New Delhi.This work is reproduced and described in Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 51, which describes it as follows: "This square shaped miniature shows us in a Himalayan landscape the god sweetly pouring water from his on the head of baby . Seated comfortably on the meadow, balances with her left hand the baby with four arms with a red body and naked, adorned only with jewels, tiny anklets and a golden chain around his stomach, a necklace of pearls, bracelets and armlets."]] Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic myths give different versions about his birth. * Nagar, pp. 7–14. For a summary of Puranic variants of birth stories. * Martin-Dubost, pp. 41–82. Chapter 2, "Stories of Birth According to the ". In some he was created by Parvati,Shiva Purana IV. 17.47–57. Matsya Purana 154.547. in another he was created by Shiva and Parvati, Purana 23.18–59. in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and ParvatiFor summary of Brahmavaivarta Purana, Ganesha Khanda, 10.8–37, see: Nagar, pp. 11–13. or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the river. The family includes his brother, the god of war, Kartikeya, who is also called Skanda and Murugan.For a summary of variant names for Skanda, see: Thapan, p. 300. Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the firstborn.Khokar and Saraswati, p.4. In northern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, after which worship of him declined significantly. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothersBrown, p. 4, 79. and may reflect sectarian tensions.Gupta, p. 38. Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories.For a review, see: Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of ". Brown, pp. 115–140 One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmachari. * . "According to ancient tradition, was a , that is, an unmarried deity; but legend gave him two consorts, personifications of Wisdom (Buddhi) and Success (Siddhi)." * . "... in the or orthodox traditional religious beliefs, is a bachelor or " This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.For discussion on celibacy of Ganesha, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . Another pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives.For a review of associations with Buddhi, Siddhi, Riddhi, and other figures, and the statement "In short the spouses of are the personifications of his powers, manifesting his functional features...", see: . He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: ).For single consort or a nameless (servant), see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or (particularly in Maharashtra).For associations with Śarda and Sarasvati and the identification of those goddesses with one another, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi.For associations with Lakshmi see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.For discussion of the Kala Bou, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: (prosperity) and (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be (auspiciouness) and .For statement regarding sons, see: Cohen, Lawrence, "The Wives of ", in: . The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity. * Cohen, Lawrence. "The Wives of ". Brown, pp. 130. * Thapan, pp. 15–16, 230, 239, 242, 251. Worship and festivals community in Paris, France]] Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions, especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business.Krishan pp.1–3 K.N. Somayaji says, "there can hardly be a Hindu home India which does not house an idol of Ganapati. ... Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country".K.N. Somayaji, Concept of Ganesha, p.1 as quoted in Krishan pp.2–3 Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.Krishan p.38 Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity. Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.For worship of Ganesha by "followers of all sects and denominations, Saivites, Vaisnavites, Buddhists, and Jainas" see Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin art performances such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha. Mantras such as Om Shri Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Ganapataye Namah (Om, , Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).Grimes p.27 Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls called laddus. The term modaka applies to all regional varieties of cakes or sweets offered to Ganesha. Martin-Dubost, p. 204. He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a .Martin-Dubost, p. 204. Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste ( )Martin-Dubost, p. 369. or red flowers. grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.Martin-Dubost, pp. 95–99. Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of Bhadrapada (August/September) and the Ganesh Jayanti (Ganesha's birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of magha (January/February)."Thapan p.215 Ganesha Chaturthi during the festival of Ganesha Chaturthi]] An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September.For the fourth waxing day in being dedicated to Ganesa ( ) see: Bhattacharyya, B., "Festivals and Sacred Days", in: Bhattacharyya, volume IV, p. 483. The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising the god's visit. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when the idols (murtis) are immersed in the most convenient body of water.The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra; Edited By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, pp.76–94 ("The Ganesh Festival in Maharashtra: Some Observations" by Paul B. Courtright); Published 1988; SUNY Press; Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event.Metcalf and Metcalf, p. 150. He did so "to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra. * Brown (1992), p. 9. * Thapan, p. 225. For Tilak's role in converting the private family festivals to a public event in support of Indian nationalism. Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule. * Momin, A. R., The Legacy Of G. S. Ghurye: A Centennial Festschrift, p. 95. * Brown (1991), p. 9. For Ganesha's appeal as "the god for Everyman" as a motivation for Tilak. Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day.For Tilak as the first to use large public images in (pavilions or tents) see: Thapan, p. 225. Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.For Ganesh Chaturthi as the most popular festival in Maharashtra, see: Thapan, p. 226." in a Regional Setting". Courtright, pp. 202–247. The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples. Temples In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as a subordinate deity ( ); as a deity related to the principal deity ( ); or as the principal deity of the temple ( ).Krishan p.92 As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper.Brown p.3 In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: अष्टविनायक; ; lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of the eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore.Grimes, pp. 110–112 The eight shrines are: Morgaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahad, Theur, Lenyadri, Ozar and Ranjangaon. There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Wai in Maharashtra; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: the Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple at Tiruchirapalli in Tamil Nadu; Kottarakkara, Pazhavangadi, Kasargod in Kerala; Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Telangana.Krishan pp. 91–92 T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below (Sacred fig) trees ... in a niche ... in temples of (Vishnu) as well as (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in temples ... the figure of is invariably seen."T.A. Gopinatha; Elements of Hindu Iconography, pp 47–48 as quoted in Krishan p.2 Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including Southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu valley),Krishan pp.147–158 and in several western countries. Rise to prominence First appearance dynasty, Vietnam. ]] Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries CE. Some of the earliest known Ganesha images include two images found in eastern Afghanistan. The first image was discovered in the ruins north of Kabul along with those of Surya and Shiva. It is dated to the 4th-century. The second image found in Gardez has an inscription on Ganesha pedestal that has helped date it to the 5th-century. Another Ganesha sculpture is embedded in the walls of Cave 6 of the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh. This is dated to the 5th-century. An early iconic image of Ganesha with elephant head, a bowl of sweets and a goddess sitting in his lap has been found in the ruins of the Bhumara Temple in Madhya Pradesh, and this is dated to the 5th-century Gupta period.Nagar, p. 4. Other recent discoveries, such as one from Ramgarh Hill, are also dated to the 4th or 5th centuries. An independent cult with Ganesha as the primary deity was well established by about the 10th century. Narain summarizes the lack of evidence about Ganesha's history before the 5th century as follows: explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand, there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... In my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence ancient Brahmanic literature of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.}} The evidence for more ancient Ganesha, suggests Narain, may reside outside Brahmanic or Sanskritic traditions, or outside geocultural boundaries of India. Ganesha appears in China by the 6th century, states Brown, and his artistic images in temple setting as "remover of obstacles" in South Asia appear by about 400 CE. He is, states Bailey, recognized as goddess Parvati's son and integrated into Shaivism theology by early centuries of the common era. Possible influences celebrations in Cologne]] Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:Courtright, pp. 10–11. tradition.... These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the literature and the iconography of .}} Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed form exists it cannot be presumed to represent . There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. had yet to make his debut."Thapan, p. 75. Some have noted the roots of Ganesha worship, dating back to 3,000 BCEPoint of Origin: Gobekli Tepe and the Spiritual Matrix for the World’s Cosmologies, p. 51, Laird Scranton, Inner Traditions since the times of Indus Valley Civilization.Horns, Tusks, and Flippers: The Evolution of Hoofed Mammals p.179 JHU Press In 1993, a metal plate depiction of an elephant-headed figure, interpreted as Ganesha, was discovered in Lorestan Province, Iran, dating back to 1,200 BCE. "Loving Ganeśa: Hinduism's Endearing Elephant-faced God", by Subramuniya, p. 268 First terracotta images of Ganesha are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram, and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique.Kumar, Ajit, 2007. "A Unique Early Historic Terracotta Ganesa Image from Pal" in Kala, The Journal of Indian Art History Congress, Vol XI. (2006-2007), pp. 89-91 The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd-3rd centuries CE). One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas ( ). * Passim. Thapan. * Rocher, Ludo. "Gaṇeśa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 70–72. In Hindu mythology, the were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties''Aitareya Brāhmana'', I, 21. but who were easily propitiated.Bhandarkar. Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects. pp. 147–48. The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the and in Buddhist Tantras. Krishan is one of the academics who accept this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-Vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering".Krishan, p. vii. Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century.For a discussion of early depiction of elephant-headed figures in art, see or According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era. Vedic and epic literature I manuscript of the Mahabharata depicting Vyasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, who serves as the scribe]] The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: ) occurs twice in the Rig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, according to commentators.Wilson, H. H. . Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II: 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. II); (Set). RV 2.23.1 (2222) | 2.23.1; "We invoke the , chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages." While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today. * Nagar, p. 3. * Rao, p. 1. In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to —who is the deity of the hymn—and only".Rocher, Ludo. " 's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, p. 69. is a variant name for Brahamanaspati. Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra,Rocher, Ludo. " 's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 69–70. who is given the epithet ' ', translated "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts)."Wilson, H. H. . Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume IV: 9, 10. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. IV); (Set). RV 10.112.9 (10092) ; "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages". However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha.For use of RV verses in recent Ganapatya literature, see Rocher, Ludo. " 's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature" in Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, (2.9.1)The verse : " | | ||" and (10.1),The verse: " | ||" appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" ( ), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" ( ). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification.For text of 2.9.1 and 10.1 and identification by in his commentary on the , see: Rocher, Ludo, " 's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature" in . The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk ( ) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club,Taittiriya Aranyaka, X, 1, 5. is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin".Heras, p. 28. However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions. * * . For arguments documenting interpolation into the Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in the have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity". * Thapan, p. 101. For interpolation into the and . * Dhavalikar, M. K. " : Myth and reality" in . For Dhavilkar's views on Ganesha's in early Literature. Ganesha does not appear in the Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata says that the sage Vyasa ( ) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recites the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata,Rocher, Ludo "Ganesa's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, pp. 71–72. in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix. Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884. The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during preparation of the critical edition.For a statement that "Fifty-nine manuscripts of the were consulted for the reconstruction of the critical edition. The story of acting as the scribe for writing the occurs in 37 manuscripts", see: . Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for 's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation.Brown, p. 4. Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.Winternitz, Moriz. " in the ". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1898:382). Citation provided by Rocher, Ludo. " 's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, p. 80. The term is found in some recensions of the and that are regarded as interpolations.For interpolations of the term vināyaka see: . A reference to ("Creator of Obstacles") in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.For reference to and translation as "Creator of Obstacles", see: . Puranic period Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300.Brown, p. 183. Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed of c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.Krishan, p. 103. In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:Rocher, Ludo. " 's Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature". Brown, p. 73. concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.}} Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The 9th-century philosopher Adi Shankara popularized the "worship of the five forms" (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition. * Courtright, p. 163. For Dating of the and its connection with Brahmins. * Bhattacharyya, S., "Indian Hymnology", in: Bhattacharyya (1956), volume IV, p. 470. For the "five" divinities ( ) becoming "the major deities" in general, and their listing as Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Ganesha. This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya. * Grimes, p. 162. * Pal, p. ix. Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity. Scriptures temple, Java, Indonesia]] Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism, some Brahmins chose Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.Thapan, pp. 196–197. Addresses the in the tradition and the relationship of the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana to it. The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comment about dating and provide her own judgment. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated."For a review of major differences of opinions between scholars on dating, see: Thapan, pp. 30–33. Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.Preston, Lawrence W., "Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred to ", in: N. K. Wagle, ed., Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India. p.103. R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400.R.C. Hazra, "The ", Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute (1951);79–99. However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha.Phyllis Granoff, " as Metaphor", in Brown, pp. 94–95, note 2. While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.Thapan, pp. 30–33. Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries.Courtright, p. 252. Ganesha Sahasranama is part of the Puranic literature, and is a litany of a thousand names and attributes of Ganesha. Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. Versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama are found in the Ganesha Purana. One of the most important Sanskrit texts, that enjoys authority in Ganapatya tradition states John Grimes, is the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Beyond India and Hinduism Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in Western and Southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who consequently reached foreign lands.Nagar, p. 175. Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.Nagar, p. 174. From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.Thapan, p. 170. The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.Thapan, p. 152. Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them. Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences.Getty, pp. 55–66. The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region. In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.Brown, p. 182. Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success. , late 18th-early 19th-century painting by Shorokuan Ekicho]] Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region. * Nagar, p. 175. * Martin-Dubost, p. 311. Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god , but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name. His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god , he is often shown dancing. This form, called Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet. In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion. Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.Nagar, p. 185. A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag.Wayman, Alex (2006). Chanting the Names of Manjushri. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: p.76. In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by ,(Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity. * Getty, p. 42 * Nagar, p. 185. Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing.Nagar, pp. 185–186. Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In northern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531.Martin-Dubost, p. 311. In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.Martin-Dubost, p. 313. , Indonesia]] The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha.Krishan, p. 121. However, Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of the god of wealth, Kubera.Thapan, p. 157. Jain ties with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections.Thapan, pp. 151, 158, 162, 164, 253. The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century.Krishan, p. 122. A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of Ganapati images. Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.Thapan, p. 158. Notes References * (fourth revised and enlarged edition). * * Four volumes. * * * : Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings |year=1985 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=0-19-505742-2 }} * . * * * * * |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=285–301 |quote= |doi=10.2307/3249845 |publisher=Artibus Asiae Publishers |jstor=3249845}} * * * * * ) of Kshīrasvāmin | publication-place =Poona| publisher =Law Printing Press| url=https://archive.org/details/namalinganusasan00amariala| accessdate =2007-09-14| isbn =}}. * * | publication-place =Delhi | publisher =D. K. Printworld Ltd. | isbn =81-246-0265-4}} * | year=1991 | title= | place= | publisher=Prācya Prakāśana | edition= | isbn= }}. Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit. * with Hindi commentary | place=Vārānasi | publisher=Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office | edition= | isbn= }} * External links * Ganesha at Encyclopædia Britannica * Ganesh: Symbol and presence Category:Ganesha Category:Hindu gods Category:Hinduism and animals Category:Mythological human hybrids Category:Animal gods Category:Commerce gods Category:Fortune gods Category:Knowledge gods Category:Wisdom gods Category:Elephants in Indian culture Category:Buddhist deities Category:Heavenly attendants in Jainism Famous Ganpati Mantras, Stotras & Sadhnas 1. Shri Ganesh Sankat Nashan Stotra - Sanskrit Lyrics and Meaning https://youtu.be/r7FFZ5iXPns 2. GANESH PANCHRATNAM STOTRAM - ND SHRIMALI https://youtu.be/8WULooIkC5E 3. श्रीराधाकृतं गणेश स्तोत्रम् https://youtu.be/P3ClAdmFR9E 4. Ganpati Prarthna For A Very Good Day https://youtu.be/tPbIGIoAECU 5. Ganesh Lakshmi Stotra https://youtu.be/2HO-EMAXX2k 6. 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